tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-34726511882494159902024-03-18T21:32:37.387-07:00QUADDo ScienceQUADD WORLDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13254447413212520879noreply@blogger.comBlogger172125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-23498777672277326092015-02-10T20:29:00.002-08:002015-02-11T20:35:35.695-08:00PERIODIC vs OSCILLATORY MOTION (s.h.m.)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #783f04;">THERE ARE TWO MAIN DIFFERENCES B/W </span><span style="color: #783f04;">PERIODIC AND OSCILLATORY MOTION-</span></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-weight: normal;"> Oscillation happens in a single direction (or in a plane) while periodic motion is generally described in 2D or 3D coordinates.So oscillation is the projection of 2D periodic motion on a single coordinate axis</span></li>
</ul>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-weight: normal;">An oscillation can be periodic or not.Example of non periodic motion is damped motion ,i.e, in which internal energy deceases over time,until oscillation stops,this oscillatory motion turns into non periodic motion.So only undamped motion is periodic.</span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></span>
for more info visit- http://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-difference-between-oscillation-periodic-274740</span></h4>
</div>
tanjotveer kaurhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09647716266333980417noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-85529772077802749322015-01-27T06:26:00.000-08:002015-01-27T06:26:14.027-08:00CENTRIPETAL FORCE vs TORQUE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Centripetal force and torque seem to be very similar to each other because they both are related to circular motion,but in actual there's a big difference....<br />
<br />
In actual if there is centripetal force then there is no torque because angle between radius and centripetal force is 0* and sin0* is zero.<br />
<br />
Torque = (force)(radius)sin0* = 0<br />
<br />
Centripetal force is to keep an object in circular path rather than in circular motion.This force tries to keep the object directed towards center,so this force is towards center whereas torque is exerted on the object to be rotated and it can be at any angle.<br />
<br /></div>
tanjotveer kaurhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09647716266333980417noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-22264035419946332832015-01-20T09:29:00.005-08:002015-01-20T09:31:31.283-08:00THERMODYNAMICS [CHEM. vs PHYSICS]<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span style="font-size: x-large;"> T</span><span style="font-size: large;">he biggest confusion that some students face in thermodynamics is different sign conventions of "work" in chemistry and physics... i have gone through the same situation...</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">let me clear this confusion..</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;"> In chemistry and physics sign conventions of work are opposite because of which it seems that equation of first law of thermodynamics is different for chemistry and physics.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The equation is.. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> <span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"> <span style="color: #783f04;"> </span></span></span><span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #b45f06;">PHYSICS</span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #073763;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"> </span><span style="color: #b45f06;"> - dQ=dE+W</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #b45f06; font-size: large;"> CHEMISTRY - dE=dQ+W</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">where "Q"is heat,"E" is internal energy and "W" is work done.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;"> <span style="color: blue;">WORK</span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> EXPANSION- work done by the system</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> COMPRESSION- work done on the system</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;"> <span style="color: blue;">SIGN CONVENTION</span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;"> <span style="color: #b45f06;">PHYSICS</span></span><br />
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-size: large;"> Expansion - positive </span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;"> Compression - negative</span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-size: large;"> <span style="color: #b45f06;"> CHEMISTRY</span></span><br />
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Expansion - negative</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Compression - positive</span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-size: large;"> So,in actual the first law of thermodynamics is not different for both the subjects but the sign conventions of work makes the difference.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
</div>
tanjotveer kaurhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09647716266333980417noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-38917591117622221772015-01-08T10:19:00.000-08:002015-01-08T10:20:07.534-08:00Human Respiratory system - part 1<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<u>ENERGY</u> - All living organisms need energy for carrying on their functions.They obtain this energy from food.The complex insoluble substances present in food are converted into simple , soluble substances with the help of enzymes.Their bond energy is released by oxidation in the cells.In oxidation, usually oxygen is used, carbon dioxide and water are produced as by-products and energy is released.During this process , energy released is trapped by forming bonds between <i>adenosine</i> <i>diphosphate</i> and inorganic phosphate to synthesize adenosine triphosphate molecules.The energy obtained from ATP molecules is called <b>biologically useful energy.</b><br />
<br />
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<div class="p0" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">C</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes'; vertical-align: sub;">6</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">H</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes'; vertical-align: sub;">12</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">O</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes'; vertical-align: sub;">6</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> + 6O</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes'; vertical-align: sub;">2</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">→ 6CO</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes'; vertical-align: sub;">2</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> + 6H</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes'; vertical-align: sub;">2</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">O + Energy</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"></span></div>
<div class="p0" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 9.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">(stored in ATP)</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"></span></div>
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<br /><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> ATP → ADP + Pi + Energy used in life activities</span></div>
<div class="p0" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"></span><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 9.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">(on hydrolysis)</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 9.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"></span></div>
<div class="p0" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><u>RESPIRATION</u> - <span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">This process generally involves :</span></span></div>
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">intake of molecular oxygen from the environment</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">step-wise oxidation of food with the incoming oxygen</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">elimination of carbon dioxide produced in oxidation</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">release of energy in small doses during oxidation </span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">conservation of energy so released in biologically useful forms, such as ATP</span></span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"> <b>Difference between breathing and respiration : </b></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>BREATHING (Ventilation)</span></div>
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<span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>RESPIRATION</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">1. It is a physical process.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">1. It is a biochemical process.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">2. It does not release any
energy. </span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">2. It releases energy that is
stored in ATP.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">3. It is an extracellular
process.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">3. It is an intracellular process.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">4. It does not involve enzyme
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<span style="color: black;">4. It involves a number of
enzymes in oxidation.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">5. Breathing mechanism varies in
different animals.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">5. Respiratory mechanism is
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<span style="color: black;">6. It is confined to certain
organs only.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">6. It occurs in all cells of the
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<![endif]--><br /><u>TYPES AND PHASES OF RESPIRATION</u> -</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><b>1. Aerobic respiration</b> : Respiration which involves use of molecular oxygen and release of carbon dioxide simultaneously is known as aerobic respiration.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">Aerobic respiration is of two main types:direct and indirect</span></span></div>
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<li><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><b>Direct respiration</b> - It is the exchange of environmental oxygen with the carbon dioxide of body cells without special respiratory organs or blood.E.g.aerobic bacteria , protista,plants , sponges, flatworms etc.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><b>Indirect respiration</b> - It involves special respiratory organs , such as skin, gills, lungs and blood. Types of indirect respiration includes:</span></span></li>
<li><i><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">Cutaneous respiration</span></span></i></li>
<li><i><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">Buccopharyngeal respiration</span></span></i></li>
<li><i><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">Branchial respiration</span></span></i></li>
<li><i><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">Pulmonary respiration</span></span></i></li>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><b>2.Anaerobic respiration</b> : In some organisms, respiration may or may not produce carbon dioxide but does not use molecular oxygen.E.g. yeast</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">C</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes'; vertical-align: sub;">6</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">H</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes'; vertical-align: sub;">12</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">O</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes'; vertical-align: sub;">6</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">→</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> 2C</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes'; vertical-align: sub;">2</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">H</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes'; vertical-align: sub;">5</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">OH + 2CO</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes'; vertical-align: sub;">2</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> + Energy</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Glucose Ethanol</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">In certain bacteria and parasitic worms , glucose is metabolised to lactic acid without the use of oxygen and without the formation of carbon dioxide.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">C</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes'; vertical-align: sub;">6</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">H</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes'; vertical-align: sub;">12</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">O</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes'; vertical-align: sub;">6 </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">→ </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">2CH3CHOHCOOH + </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Energy</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Glucose Lactic acid</span></div>
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Priority="99" Name="No List" ></w:LsdException><w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="99" Name="Balloon Text" ></w:LsdException></w:LatentStyles></xml><![endif]--> <b> Difference between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism: </b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: white;">ANAEROBIC METABOLISM</span></div>
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<span style="color: white;">AEROBIC METABOLISM</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">1. It does not use molecular
oxygen.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">1. It uses molecular oxygen. </span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2. </span></span><span style="color: black;">It
may or may not release carbon-dioxide.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">2. It always releases
carbon-dioxide.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">3. It does not produce water.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">3. It produces water.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">4. It. Provides less energy.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">4. It provides more energy.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">5. It occurs in cytoplasm only.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">5. It occurs partly in cytoplasm
and mitochondria.</span></div>
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<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-right: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.7pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">6. It occurs in yeast, some
bacteria and parasitic worms.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.75pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">6. It occurs in majority of
animals and plants.</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</span></span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><br /></span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-family: 'Arial'; font-size: 12.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"> <u>DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMBUSTION AND RESPIRATION</u> :</span></span></div>
<div>
<br />
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<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="background: #4F81BD; border-right: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.7pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>COMBUSTION (Burning)</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #4F81BD; border-left: none; border: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.75pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>RESPIRATION</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: #E9EDF4; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-right: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.7pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">1. Many chemical bonds break
simultaneously, releasing a large amount of energy at a time.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #E9EDF4; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.75pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">1. Chemical bonds break one
after another, releasing energy gradually.</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-right: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.7pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">2. No enzymes are involved.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.75pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">2. Each step is controlled by
enzyme.</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: #E9EDF4; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-right: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.7pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0in;">
<span style="color: black; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3. </span></span><span style="color: black;">No
intermediate products are formed.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #E9EDF4; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.75pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">3. Many intermediate products
are formed.</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-right: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.7pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">4. Most of the energy dissipates
away as heat.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.75pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">4. Most of the energy is trapped
in chemical bonds(ATP).</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: #E9EDF4; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-right: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.7pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">5. It is an uncontrolled
process.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #E9EDF4; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.75pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">5. It is a controlled process.</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-right: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.7pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">7. Light is often emitted.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.75pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">6. No light is emiited.</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<u> DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION</u>:</div>
<div>
</div>
<div>
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<span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>PHOTOSYNTHESIS</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #4F81BD; border-left: none; border: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.75pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>RESPIRATION</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: #E9EDF4; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-right: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.7pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">1. It is an anabolic process.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #E9EDF4; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.75pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">1. It is a catabolic process.</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
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<span style="color: black;">2. It uses carbon-dioxide and
water.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.75pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">2. It releases carbon-dioxide
and water.</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: #E9EDF4; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-right: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.7pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">3. It takes place in sunlight
only.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #E9EDF4; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.75pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">3. It takes place all the time.</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-right: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.7pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">4. It is confined to green parts
of the plant.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.75pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">4. It occurs in the cells of all
parts.</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: #E9EDF4; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-right: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.7pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">5. It occurs in the chloroplast.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #E9EDF4; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.75pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">5. It occurs in cytoplasm and
mitochondria.</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-right: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.7pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">6. It is an endergonic process.</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.75pt;" valign="top" width="296"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">6. It is an exergonic process.</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Adaptations for Gas exchange</b> : For efficient gas exchange </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1. The respiratory surfaces have large area and are thin , moist and permeable to respiratory gases.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2. Respiratory surface is highly vascular.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3. Many animals have developed special respiratory pigments which greatly increase the capacity of blood to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide..</div>
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Manishhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02850241571259283049noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-41572068593306648042014-12-18T11:44:00.000-08:002014-12-18T11:47:50.451-08:00Digestive system - part 4<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - PART4</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><u>ABSORPTION</u> <u>OF</u> <u>FOOD</u> - Absorption is the process by which the diffusible food substances pass from the lumen of alimentary tract into the blood and lymph through its mucous membrane.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><u>PATHWAYS</u> <u>OF</u> <u>ABSORPTION </u>- There are two pathways for absorption of food :</span><br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> via hepatic portal system to blood stream</span></li>
</ul>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Amino acids and
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Capillaries of mucosa</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Inferior Vena Cava</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Tissue and Cells ← Blood Stream←Heart</span></div>
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<li><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> through lymphatic system into blood stream</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><b>Digested Food substances</b> →<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lacteals</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Products of fat digestion)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>↓</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Larger Lymph Vessel</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>↓</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Main Lymph Vessel</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Thoracic duct)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>↓</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Blood Stream</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>↓</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Cells and tissues</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglbQhUn2bH2nNfDHtyL_Z86VFR1TMYP7UasEViDpi_G6Es6TY0H3jADYQn6i6dp0Z1P5QlkVg4cJisrctG59vuKz4YSoZnWQcu6_3YW6pYaq3sCtrEY-K4pDkd1eqK0Gm1aEB-UQEUxQ8/s1600/absorp22.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglbQhUn2bH2nNfDHtyL_Z86VFR1TMYP7UasEViDpi_G6Es6TY0H3jADYQn6i6dp0Z1P5QlkVg4cJisrctG59vuKz4YSoZnWQcu6_3YW6pYaq3sCtrEY-K4pDkd1eqK0Gm1aEB-UQEUxQ8/s1600/absorp22.jpg" height="393" width="640" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><u>SITES</u> <u>OF</u> <u>ABSORPTION</u> - In man, absorption mainly occurs in small intestine.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Small intestine internally bears a number of <b>villi</b> and <b>microvilli</b> to increase the surface area for absorption.Each villus contains a network of blood capillaries and a network of lymph capillaries called <b>Lacteals</b>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">- Very little absorption occurs in stomach of substances like water , salts, alcohol , few drugs</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> such as aspirin.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">- A little amount of absorption also occurs in large intestine of water , vitamin B and K.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh269xdKQR-6ZdrWJUMdHwOb-RSEdXPIgam6YRyTn3ttsNePcoeP0-_d0E6-3cRWqOAj783KDwYAQmQ_bGv23TWdvTNtNh0FdomK-f46TslEJwlqEjiUqRURr954SPfdlk6NTrFmkJICa8/s1600/absorp11.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh269xdKQR-6ZdrWJUMdHwOb-RSEdXPIgam6YRyTn3ttsNePcoeP0-_d0E6-3cRWqOAj783KDwYAQmQ_bGv23TWdvTNtNh0FdomK-f46TslEJwlqEjiUqRURr954SPfdlk6NTrFmkJICa8/s1600/absorp11.png" height="298" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><u>MECHANISM</u> <u>OF</u> <u>ABSORPTION</u> - </span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><b>Passive absorption</b> : In this process , substances move along concentration gradient from </span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> place of higher concentration to that of lower concentration.No energy is required in this process.Incomplete absorption of substances occurs through this method.it takes place by physical methods as <i>simple diffusion</i> , <i>osmosis</i> and <i>facilitated diffusion.</i></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">e.g.:Small water soluble molecules as fatty acids , monoglycerides , cholesterol and other substances are absorbed by <i>simple diffusion.</i></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Water is partly absorbed in small intestine and mostly in large intestine by <i>osmosis</i>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><b>Active absorption</b> : It is brought about by specific membrane compound (carrier protein molecule) of cell membrane.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">It can transport substances against their concentration gradient.It uses energy.It is a fast process and helps in complete absorption of substances.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">e.g.:Nutrients like amino acids , galactose , sodium ions etc. can be absorbed only by active transport. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><b>Absorption of fats</b> : Short chain fatty acids and glycerol are directly absorbed into blood
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> stream by mucosal cells of intestine.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">- Long chain fatty acids , monoglycerides , diglycerides are insoluble in water.In the lumen of intestine they combine with bile salts to form water soluble <u>micelles</u>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">- Micelles pass through the membrane of microvilli to enter epithelial cells.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">- In epithelial cells , fatty acids , glycerol , mono and di glycerides lead to form triglycerides.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">- Triglycerides , phospholipids and cholesterol combine to form <u>chylomicrons</u>.They enter central lacteals in intestinal villi from where they enter the venous blood through lymphatic system. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><u>ASSIMILATION</u> <u>OF</u> <u>FOOD</u> : Assimilation is a complex process that involves the synthesis of protoplasm (biomolecules like proteins , carbohydrates , lipids , nucleic acids etc.) in the cells from diffusible food substances brought to them by blood. It is an anabolic process.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><u>EGESTION</u> : It is the process of removal of undigested food substances from the alimentary </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> canal in the form of faeces.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><u>DISORDERS</u> <u>OF</u> <u>DIGESTIVE</u> <u>SYSTEM</u> -</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1.<b>Gallstones</b> : Gallstones are formed in the gall bladder as a result of precipitation of </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> cholesterol.Larger gallstones cause inflammation of gall bladder.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">2.<b>Jaundice</b> : It is a disease in which skin and eyes look yellow due to deposits of bile </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> pigments .</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">3.<b>Vomiting</b> : It is ejection of stomach contents through mouth.This is a protective reflex </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> action which is controlled by vomiting centre in medulla.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">4<b>.Diarrhoea</b> : The abnormal frequency of bowel movement and increased liquidity of the </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> faecal discharge is known as diarrhoea.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">5.<b>Constipation</b> : Infrequent bowel movements cause constipation.In constipation, faeces </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> are retained within the rectum.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">6. <b>Indigestion</b> : When food is not properly digested , a lot of gas is produced , which leads </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> to the distention of stomach and small intestine leading to felling of fullness. </span></div>
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Manishhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02850241571259283049noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-642298223314835092014-11-27T09:09:00.000-08:002014-11-27T09:10:23.149-08:00digestive system - part 3<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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INGESTION OF FOOD<br />
Ingestion means intake of food into the buccal cavity through mouth.<br />
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DIGESTION OF FOOD<br />
1. digestion of <b>CARBOHYDRATES -</b><br />
Simple sugars like glucose and fructose can be absorbed and metabolised directl<b>y.</b>Disaccharides like sucrose and lactose and Polysaccharides such as
starch and glycogen have to be broken down to monosaccharides .Carbohydrate splitting enzymes are known as<u> carbohydrases</u><br />
<ul>
<li> <b>digestion in Buccal cavity</b></li>
</ul>
<b> </b><b> </b><b><img align="absmiddle" alt="" src="http://img1.mnimgs.com/img/study_content/lp/1/11/14/223/710/1506/1496/13-5-09_LP_Ruchika_Bio_1.11.6.16.1.3_Meetu_SS_html_5c368daf.gif" name="Object1" /> </b><br />
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Saliva of buccal cavity contains <i>salivary amylase</i> which converts starch of food into maltose(30% digestion of starch occurs in mouth).It also contains bicarbonate ions and enzyme <i>lysozyme</i> that are bacteriocidal in nature.<br />
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<li> <b>digestion in stomach </b></li>
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Partially digested food passes from oral cavity into stomach via pharynx and oesophagus.No carbohydrate digestion occurs in stomach as gastric juice contains no carbohydrases.</div>
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<li><b>digestion in small intestine</b></li>
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Small intestine receives following juices -</div>
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i. Bile from liver</div>
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ii. Pancreatic juice from pancreas</div>
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iii. Intestinal juice from intestinal glands</div>
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<u>BILE</u> : It contains no enzyme , so has no enzymatic action on food.</div>
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<u>PANCREATIC JUICE</u> : It contains <i>Pancreatic amylase</i> which is a carbohydrase.</div>
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<u>INTESTINAL JUICE </u>: It contains the enzymes as :</div>
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i. <i>Maltase</i></div>
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ii.<i> Sucrase</i></div>
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iii.<i> Lactase </i></div>
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2. digestion of <b>PROTEINS</b></div>
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Protreins are polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. The enzymes acting on proteins are known as <b>proteases</b> or <b>peptidases</b>.</div>
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<li><b>digestion in stomach</b></li>
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Gastric juice contains two proteaese in the form of proenzymes.They are :</div>
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i<i>.Pepsinogen</i></div>
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ii.<i>Prorennin</i></div>
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Proenzyme pepsinogen <img align="absmiddle" alt="" src="http://img1.mnimgs.com/img/study_content/lp/1/11/14/223/710/1506/1496/13-5-09_LP_Ruchika_Bio_1.11.6.16.1.3_Meetu_SS_html_6f516965.gif" height="21" name="Object2" width="53" />Pepsin (active enzyme)</div>
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<li><b>digestion in small intestine</b></li>
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<u>BILE </u>: It contains no enzymes but neutralises the acidic food obtained from stomach.</div>
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<u>PANCREATIC JUICE </u>: </div>
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<u>INTESTINAL JUICE</u> : </div>
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3.digestion of <b>FATS</b><br />
<br />
ALmost entire fat portion of our diet consists of triglycerides.Digestion of fars starts and is completed in small intestine.<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><b>digestion in small intestine</b></li>
</ul>
<u>BILE</u> : It contains salta such as sodium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate which emulsify the </div>
<div>
fats. Emulsification increases the action of lipases on fats.</div>
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<b> </b></div>
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<u>PANCREATIC JUICE:</u></div>
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<b><u> </u></b></div>
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<u>INTESTINAL JUICE</u>:<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7fxcOd1v8h6nOLFXwKWaTqj77p0397E_aW_PY5XrVMHzDB1jIo7FYCUN_fL8gUxAF-Hz731U77rx_pY3BnFxdMzOKDLne9iy63jLDe8ckTXuTOq5aena-NY1v6vW7ZzewbAjkVZSzyT8/s1600/int6.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7fxcOd1v8h6nOLFXwKWaTqj77p0397E_aW_PY5XrVMHzDB1jIo7FYCUN_fL8gUxAF-Hz731U77rx_pY3BnFxdMzOKDLne9iy63jLDe8ckTXuTOq5aena-NY1v6vW7ZzewbAjkVZSzyT8/s1600/int6.png" height="40" width="400" /></a></div>
Intestinal juice also contains intestinal lipase which hydrolyses some triglycerides, diglycerides and monoglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol.<br />
<br />
4.digestion of <b>NUCLEIC ACIDS</b><br />
Digestion of nucleic acids occurs in small intestine.Enzymes which digest nucleic acids are found in pancreatic and intestinal juices.<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><u>PANCREATIC JUICE :</u></li>
</ul>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><u>INTESTINAL JUICE </u>:</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div>
Intestinal juice also acts on nucleosides and convert it into sugar and nitrogenous bases. </div>
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Manishhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02850241571259283049noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-60137233500641499832014-11-01T11:55:00.000-07:002014-11-02T03:48:37.805-08:00Human digestive system - part 2<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<b>DIGESTIVE GLANDS</b><br />
-These are exocrine glands associated with human alimentary tract.<br />
-They release digestive enzymes which help in the process of digestion.<br />
-Main digestive gland are :<br />
i.Salivary glands ii.Gastric glands iii.Liver iv.Pancreas v.Intestinal glands<br />
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<b>1.SALIVARY GLANDS</b> - There are three pairs of salivary glands<br />
a.<u>Parotid glands</u> : These are largest salivary glands present in the cheek below the external ear.<br />
Their ducts are called parotid ducts or <u>Stenson's ducts</u> open into mouth at the level <br />
of 2nd molar tooth.<br />
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b.<u>Sublingual glands</u> : These are smallest sized salivary glands located beneath anterior tongue.They have large number of small ducts called sublingual ducts or<u> Bartholin's ducts</u> or <u>ducts of Rivinus</u> open at the floor of oral cavity.<br />
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c.<u>Sub-mandibular glands</u> : They lie one on each side of face under the angle of jaw.Their ducts are<br />
called submandibular or <u>Wharton's ducts</u> open at the floor of oral cavity.<br />
Saliva : combined secretion from salivary glands and small mucus from the glands of the lining of <br />
oral cavity.Its pH is 6.8.<br />
- consists of water , minerals , enzymes : ptyalin or salivary amylase or lyzozyme.<br />
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<b>2.GASTRIC GLANDS</b> - microscopic ,tubular glands in the wall of stomach<br />
- it has three parts :<br />
<b>a.Cardiac part </b>: secretes alkaline mucus<br />
<b> b.Pyloric part</b> : also secrete alkaline mucus<br />
<b>c.Fundic part</b> : secrets mucus and enzymes (gastric juice)<br />
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Gastric glands consist of four types of cells -<br />
i.<b>Peptic or chief or Zymogen cells</b> -<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li> usually basal in position</li>
<li> produce gastric digestive enzymes - prorennin and pepsinogen</li>
<li>also produce small amount of gastric lipase</li>
</ul>
ii.<b>Oxyntic or Parietal cells</b> -<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>secrete HCl and intrinsic factor of Castle (helps in absorption of B12)</li>
</ul>
iii.<b>Mucous neck cells or Goblet cells</b> -<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>secrete mucus</li>
</ul>
iv.<b>Argentaffin cells </b>-<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>generally located at the base of gland</li>
<li>secrete somatostatin , serotonin and histamine</li>
</ul>
Gastric glands also contain endocrine cells <u>(G-cells)</u>which occur in pyloric stomach and produce hormone <u>Gastrin</u> - stimulates gastric glands to secrete HCl and enzymes<br />
Gastric juice consists of water , mucus , HCl and two enzymes pepsinogen and prorennin and sometimes also gastric lipase.<br />
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<b>3.LIVER</b> - largest and reddish brown gland<br />
- locate din upper right side of abdominal activity<br />
- consists of two main lobes : large right lobe and smaller left lobe<br />
two smaller lobes : quadrate lobe and caudate lobe<br />
-A thin walled sac,the <u>gall bladder</u>, lie in the groove in the lower surface of right lobe.Its function is to store and concentrate bile secreted by liver.<br />
-Bile is carried from liver by the bile duct ( ductus choledochus) - formed by the union of <u>cystic duct</u> from gall bladder and<u> common hepatic duct </u>from right and left liver lobes.<br />
-The bile ducts is joined by the hepatopancreatic duct which is dilate to form<u> hepatopancreatic ampulla </u>or <u>Vater's ampulla</u>.It opens into duodenum and the opening is regulated by <u>sphincter of oddi.</u><br />
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Liver consists of small structural and functional units called lobules and consist of specialized epithelial cells called hepatic cells or <u>hepatocytes</u>.Liver is highly vascular and has many sinusoids.<u>Kuffer cells</u> are found in the walls of sinusoids and they are phagocytic in action.Between hepatocytes there is also the presence of bile canaliculi which unite to form bile ducts.<br />
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<b>4.PANCREAS</b> - it is a heterocrine gland , having exocrine and endocrine part<br />
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- exocrine part consists of numerous lobules that secrete alkaline pancreatic juice</div>
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-Pancreatic juice is carried by pancreatic duct <u>(duct of Wirsung) </u>into hepatopancreatic ampulla.Sometimes an accesory pancreatic duct called duct of Santorini is also present in the pancreas and opens directly into duodenum.</div>
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-Pancreatic juice contains sodium bicarbonate , 3 enzymes : trypsinogen , chymotrypsinogen and procarbo-xypeptidase and several others like pancreatic amylase , pancreatic lipase and pancreatic nuclease(DNase and RNase)</div>
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-Endocrine part consists of groups of calls called<u> islets of Langerhans</u>.</div>
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<b>5.INTESTINAL GLANDS </b>- numerous , microscopic gland in the mucosa of small intestine<br />
- are of two types :<br />
<b> a.Crypts of Leiberkuhn</b>:<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>simple , tubular structures which occur throughout small intestine between the villi</li>
<li>secrete enzymes and mucus</li>
<li>at the base they have<u> Paneth cells</u> and <u>argentaffin cells</u></li>
<li>paneth cells produce antibacterial substance, lysozyme</li>
<li>argentaffin cells secrete hormone secretin and vasoconstrictor serotonin</li>
</ul>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<b>b.Brunner's gland</b> :</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>compound tubular glands found only in duodenum</li>
<li>secrete large amount of viscous , enzyme free a.d watery mucoid fluid.</li>
<li>secretion enables duodenum to withstand the effect of acidic chyme entering from the stomach</li>
<li>secretion contains excess of bicarbonate ions and it opens into crypts of leiberkuhn</li>
</ul>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
Secretion of intestinal juice is called intestinal juice or succus entericus.It contains many enzymes:</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
maltase , isomaltase , limit dextrinase , aminpeptidase , dipeptidase , intestinal amylase , intestinal lipase , nucleotidase , nucleosidase , enterokinase( entero peptidase ).</div>
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Manishhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02850241571259283049noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-19721611696331262232014-10-26T13:04:00.001-07:002014-11-04T10:03:57.287-08:00Human digestive system - part 1<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<u><b>HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM</b></u><br />
Human digestive system consists of -<br />
1.alimentary canal<br />
2.digestive glands<br />
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<b>ALIMENTARY CANAL</b> starts with mouth (anterior) and ends or opens outside through anus (posterior).<br />
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<b>MOUTH</b> - It is a transverse slit bounded by two movable lips : upper and lower which are lined with mucous membrane on the inner side.It leads into vestibule.<br />
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<b>VESTIBULE </b>- It is a narrow space enclosed between lips and cheeks externally and gums and teeth internally. <br />
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<b>BUCCAL CAVITY</b> (oral cavity) - Large space lined with stratified squamous epithelium , bounded above by palate , below by throat and on sides by jaws.Its parts are as follows-<br />
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<b>a.Palate</b> - roof of the mouth in humans and other mammals. <br />
i.The anterior part of the palate is supported by bones and is strong - <u>Hard palate</u><br />
ii.The posterior part of palate is smooth and fleshy - <u>Soft palate</u><br />
Function - They help in mastication of food (mixing of food with saliva).<br />
<b>b.Tongue</b> - It is a large muscular and highly mobile organ which mainly lies in the oral cavity and partly in the pharynx. It contains sensory papillae which contain taste buds.<br />
<b> c.Teeth </b>- They are present in the jaws and are -<br />
i<u>.Diphyodont</u> : 2 sets of teeth appear during lifetime<br />
-Milk teeth(deciduous teeth)<br />
- Permanent teeth<br />
ii.<u>Thecodont</u> : teeth are embedded in the sockets of bone on the jaws<br />
iii<u>.Heterodont</u> : teeth are of different types<br />
-Incisors : chisel shaped for cutting and biting<br />
-Canines : pointed for tearing and piercing<br />
-Premolar : broad and grooved for crushing and grinding<br />
-Molar : broad and grooved for crushing and grinding ; molars are present in<br />
permanent set only<br />
<b>Dental formula</b> for-<br />
Adults − <img align="absmiddle" alt="" src="http://img1.mnimgs.com/img/study_content/lp/1/11/14/223/710/1504/1493/13-05-09_LP_Ruchika_Bio_1.11.6.16.1.1_Meetu_SS_html_3877818d.gif" height="51" name="Object1" width="196" /> = 32 teeth in total<br />
whereas temporary set has only 20 teeth<br />
<b>Structure of teeth-</b><br />
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<b>PHARYNX </b>- The pharynx is about 12 cm long and vertical canal beyond soft palate.It is of three types-<br />
a.<u>Nasopharynx</u> : upper part of pharynx ; has internal nares on the roof and pair of openings of estuachian tube on sides leading to middle ear.<br />
b.<u>Oropharynx</u> : middle part of pharynx into which oval cavity opens<br />
c.<u>Laryngopharynx</u> : lower part of pharynx which leads into oesophagus(food pipe) behind and larynx infront. The opening to larynx is known as glottis which bears a leaf-like cartilegenous flap epiglottis.<br />
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<b>OESOPHAGUS</b> - Oesophagus is about 25 cm long narrow,muscular and straight tube lined by stratified squamous epithelium containing mucous glands ; acts as a passage of food into stomach by peristalsis : involuntary movement of gut by which food is pushed backward.<br />
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<b>STOMACH </b>- J- shaped muscular sac having greater curvature and lesser curvature on the lower and upper side . The stomach wall contains three muscle layers : outer longitudinal , middle circular and inner of oblique fibres.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1YOj7UyUN1l6a9Hk1upijmUmSFZ8krh5HDssApyYJ2QS20wwoYwCdImYleDctzQi4KuSfxx9T3uGlTCWa3lQ4179tbQ7-goBuw75Ff9-sCiIZbq5JuzvqAGbbW456CTK97704gqjEocU/s1600/rivm-human-stomach.gif.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1YOj7UyUN1l6a9Hk1upijmUmSFZ8krh5HDssApyYJ2QS20wwoYwCdImYleDctzQi4KuSfxx9T3uGlTCWa3lQ4179tbQ7-goBuw75Ff9-sCiIZbq5JuzvqAGbbW456CTK97704gqjEocU/s1600/rivm-human-stomach.gif.jpg" height="213" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
It is divided into 4 main regions -<br />
i.<u>Cardiac part</u> : left, broad and upper part into which oesophagus opens and this opening is known as cardiac aperture regulated by cardiac sphincter.<br />
ii.<u>Fundus</u> (or Formix) : small , upper part projecting above the cardiac part; usually contains gas or air.<br />
iii.<u>Body</u> : main middle region<br />
iv.<u>Pyloric part </u>: narrow lower portion of stomach ; leads into duodenum and its opening is called pyloric aperture guarded by pyloric sphincter.<br />
<br />
<b>SMALL INTESTINE </b>- longest part of alimentary canal(about 6 metre long).It consists of three parts:<br />
i<u>.Duodenum</u>: It foolows stomach ; about 25 cm long ; shortest and widest part of small intestine ; <br />
contains the opening of hepatopancreatic duct(union of bile duct and pancreatic duct). <br />
ii.<u>Jejunum </u>: middle part of small intestine ; about 2.4 metres long ,walls are thick and highly vascular<br />
iii. <u>Ileum</u> : lower part of small intestine ; about 3.6 metres long.<br />
<br />
<b>LARGE INTESTINE</b> - It is about 1.5 metres long and is wider than small intestine.It consists of following parts:<br />
i<u>.Appendix</u> : vestigial organ<br />
ii.<u>Caecum </u>: just 6 cm wide ; at the junction of ileum and caecum ,there's presence of ileocolic valve<br />
iii.<u>Colon</u> : contains three main regions - ascending , transverse and descending<br />
iv.<u>Rectum</u> : about 15 to 20 cm long ; bears longitudinal folds and large blood vessels<br />
<br />
<b>ANUS</b> -lies at the base of abdomen;opening of anal canal to outside ; guarded by internal sphincter of smooth muscle fibres and external sphincter of striated muscle fibres. <span id="goog_1090715775"></span><span id="goog_1090715776"></span><br />
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Manishhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02850241571259283049noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-59225557735174295332014-03-22T06:59:00.000-07:002014-03-22T06:59:30.008-07:00All About Memory!!!!!!!!!!!!<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span style="font-size: large;"> MEMORY....</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Memory may be the most important skill you have. It doesn't just allow
you to reminisce about your experiences, but do everything that you had
to learn at one point—from holding up your head to speaking your <span class="ud6y58ql45x" id="ud6y58ql45x_7">native language</span>. <span class="ud6y58ql45x" id="ud6y58ql45x_4">Check out</span> the articles below as well as our <a href="http://www.positscience.com/brain-resources">brain resources</a> to find out more about the many types of memory and how to keep your memory strong.</span><br />
<br />
<br />
<h1 class="title" id="page-title">
Types of Memory </h1>
<h1 class="title" id="page-title">
<span style="font-size: large;">Memory actually takes many different forms. We know that when we store a
memory, we are storing information. But, what that information is and
how long we retain it determines what type of memory it is. The biggest
categories of memory are short-term memory (or <span class="ud6y58ql45x" id="ud6y58ql45x_3">working memory</span>)
and long-term memory, based on the amount of time the memory is stored.
Both can weaken due to age, or a variety of other reasons and <a href="http://www.positscience.com/why-brainhq/world-class-science/peer-reviewed-research/ongoing-research-in-specific-health-conditions">clinical conditions that affect memory.</a></span></h1>
<h1 class="title" id="page-title">
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h1>
<h1 class="title" id="page-title">
Memory Lapses</h1>
<h1 class="title" id="page-title">
<span style="font-size: large;">People of all ages experience inconvenient—and sometimes
embarrassing—memory lapses. Who hasn't forgotten where they parked their
car? But when <span class="ud6y58ql45x" id="ud6y58ql45x_7">older people</span> are forgetful, many begin to worry that the slip-ups are precursors of Alzheimer's Disease (AD).</span></h1>
<h1 class="title" id="page-title">
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h1>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.positscience.com/sites/default/files/images/brain-resources/memory-loss-01.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Memory Lapses: What's Behind them?" border="0" class="left-right_bot_img" height="358" rel="lightbox" src="http://www.positscience.com/sites/default/files/images/brain-resources/memory-loss-01.jpg" title="Memory Lapses: What's Behind them?" width="198" /></a> </div>
<span style="font-size: large;">Alzheimer's is a real concern, but we needn't fear that every slip is a sure sign. <span class="ud6y58ql45x" id="ud6y58ql45x_2">Memory loss</span>
happens to all adults, and only in some cases does it signal a serious
condition. Here are a few definitions of the common causes of memory
loss in maturity.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">
</span><span style="font-size: large;"><strong>Normal Age-Related Cognitive Changes </strong><br />
Studies confirm that the ability to remetmber details about our
experiences, to manipulate multiple bits of information at the same
time, and to identify the source of what we have learned often declines
as we get older. This process actually begins as early as age 30, though
it accelerates and becomes more noticeable after age 50. Although these
cognitive changes can be annoying—and ultimately, can limit your
activities and interests—they are part of normal aging. Recent research
has indicated that keeping your mind engaged in new and challenging
activities can help to prevent or reverse this normal "cognitive
decline."</span><br />
<h1 class="title" id="page-title">
<span style="font-size: large;"> source:<span style="font-size: small;">http://www.positscience.com/brain-resources/all-about-memory</span></span></h1>
<h1 class="title" id="page-title">
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h1>
</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-89479265953962778712014-03-18T03:44:00.001-07:002014-03-18T03:44:36.916-07:00dicovery allien<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dw12iCqX9mm_9g3VB3pINSuYyClT8Hnmr91k-K9waSBwc37igFPK7My52oWWvlZP9vOQA25cip9GsMd_As8CQ' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe><br />
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SOURCE:- youtube.com<br />
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-5173740336697233652014-01-26T03:54:00.000-08:002014-01-26T03:54:05.026-08:00PERIODIC TABLE questions<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: blue; line-height: 18pt;"><b>Q.1. Why does silicon is classified as Metalloid?</b></span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: blue;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
Ans: Silicon is gray color solid at room temperature with very high melting<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>point and</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>boiling point that lose or gain 4 electrons having both metallic and non metallic properties so it is classified as Metalloid eg. Sio<sub>2.</sub></div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<sub><br /></sub></div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: blue;"><b>Q.2.Why inert gases have zero valencies?</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
Ans: It is because Inert gases have 2 or 8 electrons in valence shell.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: blue;"><b>Q.3. How is valency of an element determined?</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
Ans: The valency of an element measures its ability to combine with other elements. The valency is determined by knowing place in periodic table. All the elements in group VIII have eight electrons in their outer shells, and thus have a valency of zero (highly stable). Elements in group I just have one valence electron in their outer shells and thus have a valency of one.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: blue;"><b>Q.4. why could no fixed position be given to hydrogen in Mendeleev’s Periodic table?<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
Ans: Hydrogen placed in the first column above alkali metals. it is because<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>hydrogen and alkali metals have similar properties.</div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
However, hydrogen also resembles halogens. Like halogens, hydrogen is a gas, and exists as a diatomic molecule (H<sub>2</sub>). It forms covalent compounds like halogens unlike alkali metals. Hence, it can also be placed above the halogen group .<span style="line-height: 18pt;">Therefore, Mendeleev was not able to explain the position of hydrogen.</span></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="line-height: 18pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: blue; font-family: inherit, serif;"><b>Q.5. In modern periodic table, the isotopes of Chlorine Cl-35 and Cl-37 having different atomic masses will </b></span></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: blue; font-family: inherit, serif;"><b>be kept in different slots or they would be assigned same position on the basis of their chemicalproperties? Give reason in support of your answer.</b></span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
Ans: It is because periodic table is based on the atomic numbers of the element and both the isotopes of chlorine have the same atomic number (Z = 17).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: blue; font-family: inherit, serif;"><b>Q.6. Why was Dobereiner’s system of classification of elements into triads not found to be useful?</b></span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
Ans: it is because he could not arrange all elements in triads.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: blue; font-family: inherit, serif;"><b>Q.7. Oxygen (O, 8) and sulphur (S, 16) belong to group 16 of the periodic table :-</b></span></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: blue; font-family: inherit, serif;"><b>(i) Write the electronic configuration and valency of these two elements?</b></span></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: blue; font-family: inherit, serif;"><b>(ii) Which among these will be more electronegative? Why?</b></span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
Ans: (i) Oxygen (O, 8) = 2,6 ; Vacancy =2 Sulphur (S, 16) = 2,8,6 ; Vacancy =2 </div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
(ii) Oxygen will be more electronegative due to electro negativity decreases from top to bottom because atomic size increases.</div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: blue; font-family: inherit, serif;">Q.8. How does electronic configuration of atoms change in a period with increase in atomic number?</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
Ans. On moving across a period from left to right, the atomic number of the elements increases, therefore, the number of electrons in the valence shell increases from 1 to 8, i.e, the first element in the given period will have one electron in its valence shell and the last element in the same period will have eight electrons.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: blue;"><b>Q.9. What happens to the melting points and boiling points of elements while moving down in a group?<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
Ans. The melting points and boiling points decrease while moving down in group of metals.</div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
The melting points and boiling points increases while moving down in group of non-metals.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: blue;"><b>Q10. Why Chlorine (atomic number 17) is more electronegative than sulphur (atomic number 16)</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #333333; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
Ans: The nucleus of chlorine has more tendency to attract an extra electron than the nucleus of sulphur because chlorine needs only one 1 electron to complete its shell. Hence, chlorine is more electronegative than sulphur.</div>
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</div>
<div style="line-height: 18pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: #333333;"> </span><b><span style="color: blue;"> source-cbseadda.blogspot.in</span></b></div>
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tanjotveer kaurhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09647716266333980417noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-5151038364797964702014-01-19T05:18:00.001-08:002014-01-19T05:18:23.349-08:00CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS -important questions and answers<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<b><span style="color: blue;">1.Q.</span> Why carbon form covalent bond by sharing electron? </b><br />
<b>Ans: </b>Carbon has four electrons in its outermost shell and needs to gain or lose four<br />
electrons to attain noble gas configuration.<br />
(i) it could gain four electrons forming C4-<br />
anion. But it would be difficult for the nucleus with six protons to hold on to ten<br />
electrons, that is, four extra electrons.<br />
(ii) It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cation.<br />
But it would require a large amount of energy to remove four electrons leaving behind a<br />
carbon cation with six protons in its nucleus holding on to just two electrons.<br />
Hence, it is difficult for the carbon to lose or gain four electrons therefore carbon form<br />
covalent bond by sharing electron.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: blue;">2.Q</span>. Why do covalent compounds are in gaseous or liquid state at normal temperature </b><br />
<b>and pressure. </b><br />
<b>Ans:</b> due to Weak Vanderwaal’s forces present between the molecules of covalent<br />
compounds.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: blue;">3.Q</span>. Why do covalent compounds have less melting and boiling points? </b><br />
<b>Ans:</b> As energy required breaking the crystal is less due to the presence of weak<br />
Vanderwaal’s force.<br />
<b><span style="color: blue;">4.Q</span>. Why do covalent compounds are bad conductors of electricity?</b><br />
<b>Ans:</b> Due to the absence of free electrons or free ions.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: blue;">5.Q</span>. Why graphite has high melting point? </b><br />
<b>Ans:</b> Within each layer of graphite, every carbon atom is joined to three others by strong<br />
covalent bonds. This forms a pattern of interlocking hexagonal rings. The carbon atoms<br />
are difficult to separate from one another. So graphite also has high melting point.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: blue;">6.Q.</span>Why is diamond known as the hardest metal?</b><br />
<b> Ans: </b>Each carbon is linked to four other carbon atoms forming regular and tetrahedral<br />
arrangement and this network of carbon atoms extends in three dimensions and is very<br />
rigid. This strong bonding is the cause of its hardness and its high density.<br />
<br />
<b>7.Q.Define term allotropy? </b><br />
<b>Ans:</b> Allotropy is the property by virtue of which an element exist in more than one form<br />
and each form has different physical properties but identical chemical properties. These<br />
different forms are called allotropes. The two common allotropic forms of carbon are<br />
diamond and graphite.<br />
<div>
<br /></div>
<b> src-mountabupublicschool.net</b></div>
tanjotveer kaurhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09647716266333980417noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-6864482323680027612014-01-12T02:53:00.001-08:002014-01-12T02:53:15.062-08:00our environment (part-3)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/y3Z9PAzV1aI" width="560"></iframe><br />
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-33193008938759393962014-01-12T02:49:00.004-08:002014-01-12T02:49:42.743-08:00Our environment (imp terms)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h1 style="background-color: white; color: #339966; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; text-align: justify;">
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<div style="background-color: white; color: #0066cc; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; text-align: justify;">
Environment:</div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; text-align: justify;">
Our surrounding is called environment.</div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #0066cc; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; text-align: justify;">
Ecosystem:-</div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; text-align: justify;">
This is a system of interdependencies among various living beings and non-living things in a given habitat.</div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #0066cc; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; text-align: justify;">
Components of Ecosystem:</div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; text-align: justify;">
An ecosystem has two types of components, viz. biotic component and abiotic component.</div>
<h2 style="background-color: white; color: #0066cc; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-weight: normal;">Abiotic Component:-</span></h2>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; text-align: justify;">
All the non-living things make the abiotic component of an ecosystem. Air, water and soil are the abiotic components. </div>
<h3 style="background-color: white; color: #0066cc; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-weight: normal;">Biotic Component:</span></h3>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; text-align: justify;">
All living beings make the biotic component of an ecosystem. Green plants play the role of producers; because they prepare the food by photosynthesis. Animals and other living beings play the role of consumers; because they take food (directly or indirectly) from plants. Bacteria and fungi play the role of decomposers; as they decompose dead remains of plants and animals so that raw materials of organisms can be channelized back to the environment.</div>
<h4 style="background-color: white; color: #0066cc; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; font-weight: normal; text-align: justify;">
Food Chain:</h4>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; text-align: justify;">
A food chain is a simple representation of transfer of energy from the sun to different biotic components of an ecosystem. Sun is the ultimate source of energy. Green plants convert solar energy into chemical energy during photosynthesis. When an animal takes food, this energy is supplied to the animal and the process goes on. A simple food chain can be shown as follows:</div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; text-align: justify;">
Producer → Primary Consumer → Secondary Consumer</div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; text-align: justify;">
Grass → Deer → Lion</div>
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Food Web:-</div>
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Real life cannot be as simple as a food chain shown above. In any ecosystem, there can be many food chains which are interlinked at various levels. Thus, many food chains form a network which is called food web.</div>
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Transfer of Energy through a food chain: Different levels in the food chain are called trophic level. Out of the energy consumed by an organism at a particular trophic level, 90% is utilised for its own need and rest 10% is left for the organism of the next trophic level. So, very little energy is left for the organism which is at the tertiary level. Let us assume that a green plant makes 100% energy in the form of chemical energy. 90% of this energy would be utilised for its own purpose. This would leave just 10% energy for the primary consumer. Now, primary consumer shall also utilize 90% of energy which was consumed by it. This would leave just 1% energy for (10% of 10 = 1) for the secondary consumer. By this logic, the tertiary consumer would get just 0.1% of energy which was originally made by the green plant. This is the reason, there can be just one or two organisms at the top of the food pyramid.</div>
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This explains why the population of producers is always the largest in an ecosystem; followed by the population of herbivores and then that of carnivores. Moreover, an herbivore needs to eat many plants in its lifetime to fulfill its energy need. Similarly, a carnivore needs to eat many herbivores in its lifetime.</div>
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Balance in the Ecosystem:</h5>
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There is a delicate balance in an ecosystem; as far as number of organisms at a particular trophic level is concerned. An increase or decrease in population of any organism can disturb this balance. Let us take a hypothetical example to understand this. If all the deer are killed in a jungle, the lions would be left with no food. This would endanger the existence of lions. Once the lions and deer would be finished, it would result in population explosion of green plants. If all the lions die in a jungle, it would create another problem. Since no lion would be left to kill the deer, the population of deer would increase substantially. This will finish off all the green plants and finally even the deer would be left with no food for them.</div>
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Biodegradable Substance:-</div>
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Substances which can be decomposed by microorganisms are called biodegradable substances. All the organic substances are biodegradable.</div>
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Non-biodegradable:</div>
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Substances which cannot be decomposed by microorganisms are non-biodegradable. All inorganic substances are non-biodegradable. Many synthetic substances are also non-biodegradable.</div>
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Ozone Layer Depletion:</h6>
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Ozone layer is also known as stratosphere. When ultraviolet radiations act on oxygen, the oxygen gets converted into ozone.</div>
<img alt="environment1" id="ctl00_ctl00_ContentPlaceHolder1_ContentPlaceHolder3_Image1" src="http://www.excellup.com/classten/scienceten/sciencetenimage/10_environment1.PNG" style="background-color: white; border-width: 0px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-small; text-align: justify;"></span><br />
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; text-align: justify;">
Ozone layer works like a protective shield for living beings. The ozone layers wards off harmful ultraviolet radiations from the sun.</div>
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Use of CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbon) has damaged the ozone layer. As a result, the ozone layer has become thinner at certain parts. In 1987, the UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) succeeded in forging an agreement among different nations to freeze the CFC production at 1986 level. Later, an agreement was signed among different nations to phase out CFCs. It is important to note that CFC is used in refrigerators and aerosol spray. India is also a signatory of that agreement and thanks to the efforts by the United Nations and different environmentalists, the CFC emission has been put under some control.</div>
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Problems of Waste Disposal: During our day to day activities, we produce lot of waste. While some of the waste is biodegradable, a large chunk is composed of non-biodegradable substances. Plastic waste is a serious concern because plastic is non-biodegradable. We need to respect our environment and find out ways to reduce the burden on our environment.</div>
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(source- <a href="http://www.excellup.com/" style="background-color: transparent; text-align: left;">http://www.excellup.com</a>)</div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-20893840231802718482014-01-10T23:55:00.000-08:002014-01-10T23:55:52.449-08:00part 2 our environment.........<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-7313021345225230222014-01-10T23:48:00.002-08:002014-01-10T23:48:27.777-08:00our environment<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-40454772168615005612014-01-04T23:01:00.000-08:002014-01-04T23:01:10.472-08:00RECAPTULATE: NAMING ALKANES<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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tanjotveer kaurhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09647716266333980417noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-79342137275294821792014-01-03T10:05:00.002-08:002014-01-03T10:05:35.901-08:00ENVIRONMENT<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 200%;">ENERGY TRANSFER IN BIOSPHERE</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 200%;">The following are the characteristics of energy transfer in the
biosphere:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 200%;">(i) Energy is supplied by the sun and it is not created in the
biosphere. Energy is only converted from one form to another in the biosphere.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 200%;">(ii) There is a continuous transfer of energy from one trophic
level to the <span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD4">next</span> in a food chain.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 200%;">(iii)At each trophic level, some of the energy is utilized by the
organisms for their metabolic activities.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 200%;">(iv) At each trophic level, some amount of energy is
utilized for the composition of decomposers.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 200%;">(v) At each trophic level, there is loss of energy, which goes
into the environment and remains un-utilized.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 200%;">(vi) At each trophic level, the amount of energy available is less
than that available at the previous level.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 200%;">ENERGY FLOW CONSIDERED AS UNIDIRECTIONAL</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 200%;">The flow of energy is unidirectional and non cyclic. The energy
captured by the autotrophs does not return to the sun, and the energy which
passes to the subsequent levels does not come back to autographs. The amount of
energy goes on successively decreasing from the producers to the carnivores. </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-46925009155941878482013-12-29T23:22:00.001-08:002013-12-29T23:23:44.254-08:00evolutin.of stages in humans..................<iframe width="420" height="315" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/-ONwp56pMBE" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-67823527718853754182013-12-29T23:14:00.000-08:002013-12-29T23:14:16.752-08:00evolution........................<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-86012603641327468242013-12-29T04:09:00.003-08:002013-12-29T06:09:45.724-08:00MODERN PERIODIC TABLE VS MENDELEEV's PERIODIC TABLE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: blue;">MODERN PERIODIC TABLE vs MENDELEEV'S PERIODIC TABLE</span><br />
<img alt="Modern periodic table" height="173" src="http://www.chemicalelements.com/graphics/table.gif" width="320" /> <img alt="Mendeleev's periodic table" height="187" src="http://www.aip.org/history/curie/images/table1869-reprint.gif" width="320" /><br />
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The elements are arranged in grids. The elements are arranged as a list.<br />
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The elements are arranged according to their The elements are arranged according to their<br />
increasing atomic number. increasing atomic masses.<br />
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Transition metals are placed in different block. Transition metals were placed in groups with non-transition metals</div>
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Empty spaces for undiscovered elements were Empty spaces were left for undiscovered<br />
filled. metals<br />
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Cause of periodicity is given. Cause of periodic table is not given.<br />
(electronic configuration) <br />
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Position of isotopes is logically explained. Position of isotopes is not correct according to Mendeleev's law of atomic masses.<br />
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source-modern abc of chemistry(book)<br />
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tanjotveer kaurhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09647716266333980417noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-59981583045256610322013-12-29T03:41:00.000-08:002013-12-29T03:41:03.990-08:00MENDELEEV'S PREDICTIONS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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tanjotveer kaurhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09647716266333980417noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-51520662962680972242013-12-22T01:02:00.002-08:002013-12-22T01:02:56.376-08:00HISTORY OF PERIODIC TABLE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3; color: #073763;">WHY ELEMENTS NEED TO BE CLASSIFIED?</span><br />
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3; color: #073763;"> The elements need to be classified so that they can be easily studied. </span><br />
<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3; color: #073763;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"> <span style="color: blue;"> PERIODIC TABLE-</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> The periodic table arranges all of the known elements in order of increasing atomic number. Order generally coincides with increasing atomic mass. The different rows of elements are called periods. The period number of an element signifies the highest energy level an electron in that element occupies.</span><span style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> </span><span style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;">Elements that lie in the same column on the periodic table (called a "group") have identical valance electron configurations and consequently behave in a similar fashion chemically. For instance, all the group 18 elements are inert, or noble gases.</span></span><br />
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"> <span style="font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"><span style="color: #073763;">SOME EARLIER ATTEMPTS TO CLASSIFY ELEMENTS</span></span></span><br />
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"><span style="color: blue;">1 METALS AND NON METALS</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> Among earlier classifications,Lavoisier classified elements into metals and non metals but it was proved to be inadequate.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"> <img src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRv-0lX52BwB5FY_2Ejs7m5SkiuxZTAksOUAMOOL8PHnWoTg_cEJw" /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"><span style="color: blue;">2 DOBEREINER'S TRIADS</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> He classified elements into group of 3,such that they had similar properties and the average of atomic masses of first and third elements was equal to the atomic mass of the middle or second element.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> Limitations-He could not classify all the known elements into triads.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"> <img 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" /> </span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"><span style="color: blue;"> 3 NEWLAND'S LAW OF OCTAVES</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> He arranged the elements into the increasing order of their atomic masses such that the property of every eighth element was equal to the first element.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> Limitations-This law was only applicable on the elements till calcium.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"> <img 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" /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> </span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"><span style="color: blue;">4 LOTHAR MEYER'S ARRANGEMENT</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> He classified elements according to their atomic volumes.The atomic volume of an element is the volume occupied by 1 mole of an element in its solid state.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"> <img src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRhXfpxWK5gQkBVniYFud6eHNyORdp8wVSMaqUxzUj8pFVyrIheIg" /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> </span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"><span style="color: blue;">5 MENDELEEV'S PERIODIC TABLE</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> He classified elements mainly on the basis of their reaction with oxygen and water.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> Mendeleev's periodic law</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> the physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic masses.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> Limitations-He could not tell the cause of periodicity.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"> <img src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTW2DAs4d7MNXC15PcPQ13ppU_Nf2xDNiQ8Whl72zWephWA2qtIOA" /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"><span style="color: blue;"> 6 MODERN PERIODIC TABLE-MOSELEY</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> He classified elements in the increasing order of their atomic numbers.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> Modern periodic law</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> </span><span style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> </span><span style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;">the physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic numbers.</span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> </span><img src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSiDpeQ9Qw6iOPHJTWwwO0aQ6-Bi6u5Lyp5xmGBuhB8VcQkHiv3WQ" /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: #cfe2f3;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;"> </span><span style="color: #073763;"> <span style="font-family: 'Open sans', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22px;">SOURCE-www.livescience.com;modern abc of chemitry[book]</span></span></span></div>
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tanjotveer kaurhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09647716266333980417noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-40059874658700230432013-12-22T00:55:00.000-08:002013-12-22T00:55:24.156-08:00speciation.............<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3472651188249415990.post-65083231026343176182013-12-14T00:11:00.000-08:002013-12-14T00:11:02.039-08:00Important terms of heredity and evolution<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: red; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">Heredity</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">: The transmission of characters (traits) from the parents</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;"> to their off springs is called Heredity.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: red; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">Variation:</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;"><span style="color: #333333;"> The</span> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">differences</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;"> <span style="color: #333333;">in </span></span><span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD4" style="background-attachment: scroll !important; background-color: white; background-image: none !important; background-position: 0% 50%; border-bottom-color: rgb(0, 0, 255) !important; border-bottom-style: solid !important; border-bottom-width: 1px !important; cursor: pointer !important; display: inline !important; float: none !important; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px; padding: 0px 0px 1px !important; position: static;">the ch</span><span class="IL_AD" style="background-attachment: scroll !important; background-color: white; background-image: none !important; background-position: 0% 50%; border-bottom-color: rgb(0, 0, 255) !important; border-bottom-style: solid !important; border-bottom-width: 1px !important; cursor: pointer !important; display: inline !important; float: none !important; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px; padding: 0px 0px 1px !important; position: static;">aracter</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;"><span style="color: #333333;"> among</span> </span><span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD5" style="background-attachment: scroll !important; background-color: white; background-image: none !important; background-position: 0% 50%; background-repeat: repeat repeat !important; border-bottom-color: rgb(0, 0, 255) !important; border-bottom-style: solid !important; border-bottom-width: 1px !important; cursor: pointer !important; display: inline !important; float: none !important; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px; padding: 0px 0px 1px !important; position: static;">the individuals</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;"> of a species is called variation is necessity for organic evolution.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">Both Heredity & variation are fundamental factors in the process of Evolution of an organism.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: red; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">Genetics: </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">The branch of biology which studies heredity & variation is called genetic.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">Terms </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: red; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">gene</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;"> was coined by scientist – </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: red; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">Johanssen in 1909</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: red; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">Chromosomes:</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;"> </span><span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD3" style="background-attachment: scroll !important; background-color: white; background-image: none !important; background-position: 0% 50%; border-bottom-color: rgb(0, 0, 255) !important; border-bottom-style: solid !important; border-bottom-width: 1px !important; cursor: pointer !important; display: inline !important; float: none !important; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px; padding: 0px 0px 1px !important; position: static;">Chromosomes</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;"> are thread like structures present in the nucleus of a cell which contain hereditary information of the cell. They are made up of DNA & proteins.</span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: red; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">Gene</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">: Gene is the unit of inheritance. Various genes are located in the </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">chromosomes</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;"> at fixed position genes are responsible for our characteristic features.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">Chemically gene is a segment of a large polynucleotide molecule called de oxyribonucleic acid</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: red; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">DNA:</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;"> Dexyribo nucleic acid DNA was first isolated by </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: red; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">Frederick meisher </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">from the nucleus of the pus cells.It is acidic in nature so the name is nucleic acid. DNA is a macromolecule/polymer which is made up of a large no. of smaller units called Nucleotide. So DNA is a polynucleotide.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: red; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">Nucleotide </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">is the basic structure unit of DNA.</span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: red; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">Sex Determination: </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">The process by which the sex of a per is determined is called sex determination.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">The </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">Chromosomes</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;"> which determine the sex of a person called sex </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">chromosomes</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;"> which areof 2 types X & Y. </span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red;"> XX combination is always found in females</span></b><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red;"> XY combination is always found in males.</span></b><br />
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<b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red;">ORGANIC EVOLUTION</span></b><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">Evolution is the sequence of gradual changes which take place in the primitive organisms over millions of yrs. In which non species are provided.</span><br />
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<b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red;">DARWINISM / Theory of Natural Selection (by charles robert darwin)</span></b><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">(a) All the species produce a large no of offsprings but population remains fairly constant due to struggle bt the members of same species & different species for food, space & mate</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">(b) This struggle eliminates the unfit individuals. (Survival of the fittest)</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">(c) This gives orgin to variations which pass into progeny & over a long period of time, leads to origin of new species.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-family: Arial, serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.875px;">Limitations: It could not explain how the variations arise.</span></div>
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